Occupational Health and Safety in China (Note 1)
Given the continued catalogue of industrial accidents and the growing rise of occupational disease and ill health, the state’s concern over the low levels of workplace safety has led to the promulgation of numerous new laws and regulations. In practice however, limitations in a number of areas inhibit their effective and widespread implementation and highlight a clear distinction between the theory of occupational health and safety (OHS) and its practice. Indeed, according to Shan Chunchang, a Deputy Director in the department of State Administration of Work Safety (SAWS) the advancement of workplace safety in China is limited in two main ways; ‘the absence of rigor and the failure of implementation.’
These limitations can be categorized as follows;
1. Regulatory bodies responsible for protecting worker safety have failed to move beyond limitations imposed by earlier statutory guidelines
2. Although the relevant laws are issued by the central government, the main responsibility rests with local government.
3. The government’s authority to implement rules and regulations has declined in recent years
4. Investment in safety systems has not been adequate
5. The safety inspection system is unable to legally enforce closure notices and other penalties
6. Fundamental legal impediments prevent the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) from organizing workers in ways that would allow them greater control over workplace safety issues
7. The regulatory environment has become increasingly complex
8. Administrative changes due to government restructuring have further complicated the chain of responsibility for OHS matters
This article begins by outlining the new laws and regulations implemented in 2002, and follows with a discussion of the eight major issues outlined above. It is important here to note that we have sought to simplify what is in reality an extremely complex situation.
The current system in which worker safety is overseen has its origins in the years following the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. The first compendium of industrial hygiene standards, Tentative Hygiene Standards for Industrial Enterprises, was published in 1956 and based on guidelines developed in the former USSR. In the following year, the Ministry of Health published the first official list of statutory occupational diseases. Since then, the government has promulgated several lists of occupational diseases, measures for their prevention, and rules for reporting them.[2] However, it was not until recently, beginning in 1979, that the Chinese government started to develop guidelines that took into account local practice and experience, rather than simply adapting OHS criteria, straight from regulations imported wholesale from the USSR.[2]
Even though the chain of responsibility, to which we shall return below, is complex, the major laws and regulations pertaining to OHS are straightforward. Key laws are listed below with particular focus on the rights and responsibilities of workers.
Before listing the key elements of the new laws implemented in 2002 (the Work Safety Law and the Law on the Prevention and Cure of Occupational Diseases), we want to briefly outline the relevance to OHS of the Labour Law and the Trade Union Law.
Labour Law of the People’s Republic of China (1 January 1995)
Until 1 January 1995, China did not have labour laws as such. In its place was a ‘Model Outline of Intra-Enterprise Discipline Rules,’ which was less a legal framework and more a set of rules aimed at enforcing industrial peace and increasing production rather than defining workers’ legal rights.[3, 4]
The Chinese Labour Law consists of thirteen chapters and 107 articles, of which Chapter VI – Articles 52 through 57 – deals specifically with OHS. Most of the important stipulations are mirrored in the new OHS laws, the most important of which include the responsibility of employing units to ‘establish and perfect’ OHS systems that meet standards stipulated by the state, and of workers to ‘abide by rules of safe operation’ (Articles 53 and 53). Additionally, labour laws provide labourers with the right to ‘refuse to operate’ if management violates ‘rule and regulations’ (Article 56). Other chapters specify further rights for women and juvenile workers (Chapter VII) and the obligation of enterprises to provide vocational training (Chapter VIII). Chapters XI and XII on supervision and inspection and the issue of legal responsibility respectively also provide additional protection for workers with regard to OHS.
Trade Union Law of the People’s Republic of China’s (3 April 1992, amended 27 October 2001)
The new law contains a number of changes, some positive, some a step backwards. Some of the revisions, while not directly related to the issue of OSH, are important factors influencing the ability of the ACFTU to act as a representative of the workers. Indeed the law further consolidates the ACFTU's monopoly on trade union activities and organising as well as its subordination to and direction from the Chinese Communist Party. The Trade Union Law stipulates specific rights with regard to education and organizing. Article 5 and 7, for instance lay the framework for the provision of education and training in OHS to workers by stating that the ACFTU and trade unions have the responsibility to organize and improve education among workers, including technical, professional [and] scientific education. Articles 10 through 18 lay down regulations regarding the formation of trade union committees, which can, in theory, be established in any workplace ‘to organize the members in various activities’. Article 39 further states that ‘election of the representative(s) from among the workers and staff members to the board of directors or the board of supervisors of a company shall be conducted in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Company Law.’
The law therefore allows for the possibility of democratically elected worker committees which could be specifically formed to act as OHS representatives. However, given clauses on the subordinate relationship of the ACTU to the government and the lack of an express permission for industrial action in the form of strikes (bagong), it is not at all clear, to what extent the law would allow for the ACFTU in reality to promote or lead a genuine worker led reform of OHS practices.
Work Safety Law (1 November 2002).
The Work Safety Law stipulates 14 basic systems and/or measures. The most important ones include:
1. A production unit must meet (jubei) all the relevant laws, regulations and industry specific laws (such as the Coal Safety Law), otherwise it may not undertake production activities.
2. An enterprise must appoint an individual who is responsible for all aspects of safety.
3. An enterprise must also implement a safety management organization or individual. In particular, enterprises must implement a safety management system specifically addressing workplaces where explosives, working at height and other dangers are involved.
4. An enterprise must implement a system of education, training and assessment on safety knowledge of OHS directors (that is, personnel with overall responsibility), OHS managers, and workers.
5. Enterprises must implement a system of three simultaneous [OHS] measures (san tongshi zhidu) at all stages of all projects (jianshe gongcheng); that is, OHS measures should be evident at the planning stage, during construction (of plant and so on), and when production is underway.
6. Production units must register exceptionally dangerous hazards with the local safety inspectorate (anquan jiancha guanli bumen).
The question of where responsibility lies for the implementation and monitoring of the law is perhaps the most serious issue. For example, the san tongshi system (the fifth point above) has significant implications and requires an enormous amount of co-ordination between parties involved in planning, construction and overseeing management of the facility when it is functional. The law seems to imply that this will be a smooth process, however given the reality of major construction projects and the frequent changes of ownership, in practice, the system can appear unworkable. For example, if a project changes hands after the initial planning process, then how can simultaneous measures on OSH be implemented and who indeed is responsible for the coordination at a local level. It is not in either the project manager’s interests or the local government’s interests to want to complicate procedures for investors. There appears to be no clear demarcation of responsibility. For instance, is SAWS responsible for ensuring the smooth functioning of the san tongshi system? Does it lie with the local inspection department, or the local government officials who have been put in charge of – as one official put it – the ‘bitter gourd’ (kugua) of OHS?
The question of who assumes responsibility for OHS is further complicated by the implementation of guiding principles such as ‘Safety First with Prevention the Key’ (anquan diyi, yufang wei zhu) which states that it is the responsibility of government leaders at all levels to make certain that safety is a key content of all projects, workplaces and places that they visit and/or inspect. In approving development plans, relevant government departments are responsible for safety via a system where those sectors and projects determined as being technically backward are eliminated through selection (taotai) (which implies selection through a market tendering mechanism). Thus, all projects and tenders that do not meet national legal requirements should not gain approval. The relevant departments of the State Council are responsible for updating safety standards and requirements. Given the size and scope of the relevant government bureaucracies, the newness of the standards, and our familiarity with the problems relating to the administration of previous standards, we believe it will be some time before the system is even communicated – let alone implemented – to the relevant departments countrywide. Moreover, the effective implementation of the new standards is closely linked to the planned reforms of government bureaucracies, which have been put on partial hold, further retarding the process.
However, at a more practical level, the duties and responsibilities of employing units and OHS officers are clear. The chief duties and responsibilities of employing units, for instance, are threefold.
• Ensure various managerial aspects of OHS, which involves planning, organization, directing (zhihui), control, and co-ordination.
• Set up an OHS responsibility system based on the special characteristics evident in the sector in which they are involved. The person with overall responsibility in the company for implementing the system must also ensure that all departments are linked to and administer a bonus and punishment system related to all aspects of OHS.
• To close down and revoke the licenses of enterprises that have been informed to temporarily halt production in order to rectify OHS systems but fail to do so. Detailed punishments are provided in Chapter Six of the law.
The responsibilities of OHS officers in different types of employing units are likewise clearly demarcated under the new laws.
For example, in companies that fall within the definition provided under China’s Company Law (which lists limited liability and shareholding companies), the chairman or the president of the board of directors is ultimately responsible for OHS. If the enterprise appoints a managing director of OHS, then ultimate responsibility lies with them. In enterprises that do not fall under Company Law the factory director or manager is accountable for OHS. Interestingly, Article 5 of the Work Safety Law states that with regard to accountability, a person with responsibility for OHS is liable should accidents take place in violation of laws; that is, chairmen, directors or managing directors are not ultimately liable. Thus, the responsibilities of chairmen, directors or managing directors are to ensure that the person in charge of OHS is taken seriously, and that their recommendations and systems are adequately funded and implemented.
The rights of workers vis-à-vis the new OHS laws and regulations are also clearly outlined. There are six key rights. Workers have the right to:
1. Education on all dangers in the workplace, which includes the right to take active steps to prevent OHS dangers
2. Safety equipment that conforms to national standards
3. Criticize and make suggestions with regard to any aspect of OHS
4. Refuse to carry out instructions from management that violate and laws and/or regulations
5. Stop work in life threatening situations
6. Insurance compensation following an accident at work.
The role of the trade union is also spelled out in the new laws. There are two relevant points. The first relates to the theory of OHS laws. Several articles in the law enable the trade union to take a proactive role in ensuring worker safety. For instance, Article 7 stipulates that unions shall organize workers to participate in democratic management and supervision of OHS managers. Likewise, Article 52 states that the trade union has the right to make suggestions and present their opinions on OHS arrangements, their design, operation and monitoring. The union has the legal right to demand the rectification of OHS violations, to make suggestions to management on any matter concerning OHS, and to which work units must respond promptly. The union also has a responsibility to take the lead on the workers’ rights listed above. It is also worth noting in this regard that commentaries on the new law (of which several already exist) refer to the union’s duty to take a proactive role, a further hint towards the law’s active role in drawing the ACFTU into assuming some responsibility for ensuring worker safety.
The second point relates to the practical role of the trade union. In theory, the ACFTU can take a leading role in pressuring enterprises to comply with the new standards and laws. However, in practice the ability of the union to do is severely curtailed by the fact that the union is neither legally empowered nor practically capable of organizing workers, and is unlikely to have the capacity to do so any time in the near future. This inability prevents it from playing an active role with regard to OHS and inspections. Furthermore, the ACFTU has no presence in many foreign-invested or private companies, which disables its effectiveness completely in those enterprises. There is, in short, a significant gap between theory and practice.
As mentioned earlier, a major impediment to the effective implementation of OHS is that although laws are enacted by the central government, the main responsibility for the system rests with local government. For the purposes of simplicity there are four key points to note in this respect.
First, as one of the currently available commentaries on the Work Safety Law exposes very clearly, is the contradiction of on the one hand promoting a safe workplace environment but on the other of inducing more foreign investment, much of which enters China to minimize costs. The relevant sentences are: ‘Under the socialist market economy, the government does not interfere with production as this is an area where market forces shall inform the necessary adjustments. However, in matters relating to OHS in a company, an area that directly affects the life of workers and also public safety, the role of government is to direct the work of supervision and inspection.’[6]
Second, the State Council has established SAWS a government department with the responsibility to oversee inspection work (under which are specific organizations such as the State Administration of Coal Mine Safety),.
Third, there is clear evidence that local governments are themselves incapable of achieving a balance between development and OHS that enables both investment and a safe working environment. This point was recently elaborated upon in no uncertain terms to one of the authors by a local trade union representative. In a discussion on the new laws, the latter pointed out that 'all this talk about balance was so much hot air' and that for the time being ‘development would take clear precedence over fairness.’ The Work Safety Law is nevertheless clear that ultimate responsibility lies with local governments. (see Articles 9, 53 and 54)
Despite these contradicting priorities, it is also clear that the function of closing down enterprises that fail to meet standards is the direct responsibility of county level governments and above.
Law on the Prevention and Cure of Occupational Diseases (1 May 2002).
This law stipulates the responsibilities of enterprises with regard to safe working conditions, industrial accident insurance, the measures adopted to prevent occupational diseases, and the level of information they should provide to workers.
Article 4: … the employing unit shall establish working conditions that conform to national standards and requirements concerning occupational health and shall adopt measures that guarantee the occupational health of workers.
Article 6: The employing unit shall take out industrial accident insurance in accordance with the law on industrial insurance.
Article 20: The employing unit shall adopt effective measures to prevent and guard against occupational diseases and provide equipment to individual workers that guard against such diseases.
Article 30: On drawing up a labour contract with a worker, the employing unit shall actively inform the worker of all potential occupational illnesses that may result from processes used and their harmful results. The employing unit shall also include in the labour contract all measures and treatment against occupational diseases and shall not conceal dangers or cheat the workers. … [W]here the employer has violated the previous two clauses, the worker has the right to refuse to work in an area where there are occupational hazards. The employing unit shall not terminate or cancel the labour contract in these circumstances. … Workers shall study and fully grasp the appropriate information on occupational safety and respect the relevant laws, regulations, rules and operating procedures. They shall use correctly and maintain occupational health installations and individual protective equipment. Workers … shall also promptly report accidents or hidden dangers relating to occupational hazards.
Finally, in addition to the Work Safety Law, there are number of other relevant laws that also cover some aspects of workplace safety. We have included a list below, but it should be noted that this is by no means exhaustive. It includes only those regulations that are of a general nature or, if more specific, laws the cover sectors in which the rate of industrial accidents or disease are amongst the worst; for example, coal mining, construction, or the use of hazardous and/toxic materials.
• Regulations on the Protection of Women Workers (guiding principles)
• Regulations on Industrial Accidents and Dealing with Accidents (guiding principles)
• Coal Safety Law
• Regulations on Labour Protection for Using Toxic Materials in the Workplace (12 May 2002)
• Regulations on the Safe Management of Dangerous Chemicals (15 March 2002).
• Regulations on Radioisotopes and the Installation of Protective Equipment Against Radiation (24 October 1989)
• Regulations on the Prevention and Cure of Pneumoconiosis (3 December 1987).
As we have already mentioned, the chain of responsibility for ensuring the implementation of the laws is a crucial aspect of the Chinese regulatory environment, and is a popular theme for analysis in the wealth of Chinese-language material on OHS. It is a complex system but is simplified diagrammatically below
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style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Figure 1. The Chain of
Responsibility
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">State Council
style="">↓
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">State Economic and Trade
Commission
style="">↓ style="">
↓
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">State Administration of
Work Safety
State
Administration of Coal Mine Safety
style="">↓ style="">
↓
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Related provincial
government departments:
class="SpellE">i style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">. Construction Division:
Safety management of construction sites
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">ii. Economic and Trade
Management Division (province,
autonomous region and municipality): Safety management of hazardous
chemicals
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Source [6]
There are a number of essential issues relating to the ramification for workers that require mentioning and are problems associated with the top down approach towards workplace safety, and the lack of worker involvement in general.
During the early years of the reform era, official discourse on worker safety pinpointed a number of major problems. For instance, a summary report published in January 1985 by the leading monitoring group OHS Month argued that local authorities were only paying lip service to OHS and were not taking instructions from the central authorities seriously. Worse still, they were guilty of willfully ignoring problems that existed. The report cites evidence to show that township and village enterprises (TVEs) often failed to fill OHS positions or implement systems designed to protect workers. They also failed to provide adequate training to new workers. In short, OHS Month argued that organizations across the board failed to provide adequate resources to ensure the implementation of OHS laws and systems.[7]
In 2002, publications from SAWS itself show that two decades on, there is a direct correlation between the problems identified in the mid 1980s and action taken now. Compare the comments above with the measures SAWS outlined in a circular published in 2002 relating to the improvement of coal mine safety, the most dangerous sector in China. (Our discussion immediately below concentrates on the coal industry by way of example, and to demonstrate how even in the industry in which workers lives are most at risk OHS laws and regulations remain ineffective. See Table 1 that shows statistics on workplace injures and deaths.)
1. Safety publicity campaigns on OHS, including convening meetings and conferences of safety officials and the regular issuing of OHS documents and guidelines
2. Closing down small coal mines that fail safety inspections
3. Suspending production in state-owned coal mines that fail safety inspections
4. Demanding that local governments and employers take OHS concerns seriously as well as guarantee investment in safety procedures and equipment and adequate training for personnel.[8]
/>style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Table 1. Accidents in
selected sectors and provinces, 2000-2001
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; border-top: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Accidents | <>style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; border-top: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Deaths | <>style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; border-top: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Permanent Injuries | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Total | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2000 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">10,770 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">11,681 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">3,999 | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2001 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">11,402 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">12,554 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">4,141 | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">By Selected Sector | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Coal mining | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2000 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2,863 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">5,798 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">445 | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2001 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">3,082 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">5,670 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">503 | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Manufacturing | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
| <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
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| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2000 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">3,477 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">1,946 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2,012 | <>
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| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Construction | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
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| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">2001 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">1,674 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">1,647 | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">556 | <>
| style="border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; border-left: 1pt solid windowtext; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">By Selected Province | <>style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; border-right: 1pt solid windowtext; border-bottom: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 110.7pt;"> style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
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style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">
style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Notes: The figures are
official and thus may not reflect the actual number of accidents.
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style="font-size: 10pt; font-family: Arial;">Source: [13]
Chinese workers are still facing the same problems as they did two decades ago. These are further exacerbated by the decline in the ‘government’s capacity to govern’, as He Qinglian, the former editor of Southern Weekend, one of China’s most progressive newspapers, put it. For instance, Zhao Tiechui, a Deputy Director in SAWS, argued during an emergency national telephone conference on coalmining safety convened in Beijing on 7 July 2002 that the OHS system established in the coal mining industry existed in name only. [note: See CLB’s recent reports on coal mining for details of 2003.] His criticisms stated that documents issued from the central government are simply passed on to the next level of government and ignored, meetings are held but the safety measures discussed never go any further, old and outdated machinery in state-owned mines, inadequate safety operation procedures, and a decline in the fire prevention facilities and fire-fighting equipment in such mines exacerbate the problems.
Using the 20 June 2002 accident at a mine owned by the Jixi Mining Group as an example, Zhao pointed out that the State Administration of Coal Mine Safety Supervision (SACMSS) had issued six warnings to the group. The warnings stated that its investment in safety systems and operations had fallen and as a result there were serious safety hazards. Yet the group both refused and procrastinated over instructions to rectify the situation, citing economic difficulties. On June 20, just as an inspection team dispatched by the State Council had completed its work and issued yet another notice to cease production until safety standards were met, an explosion and fire ripped through the mine killing 115 miners.
The lack of investment in safety systems Zhao mentions has been the subject of widespread discussion. For a discussion on the lack of investment in safety systems and number of accidents in coal mines, please see CLB’s Proposals to improve Occupational Health and Safety in China.
The Jixi coalmine disaster of 20 June 2002 and its aftermath provide an excellent example of how the rules are ignored. After the accident, Meng Zidong – head of the Jixi Mine Safety Inspectorate, was reported in the People’s Daily as saying:
It wasn’t just the shaft where the explosion took place that was refusing to follow our instructions and stop production to put things right, it’s every mineshaft in the company. This year we have put out 54 notices … to management operating various coalfaces and shafts to stop production. They have all been ignored.’[10]
The same article detailed the lack of Inspectorate staff and how the State Council had issued a national regulation/notice that ordered the safety inspectorate in enterprises to separate themselves from production departments and management. The People’s Daily argued that because the Mine Safety Inspectorate does not have the power to order production to stop, their hands are tied.
The article raises several issues to which we shall return. The first is that the All-China Federation of Trade Unions (ACFTU) is unable to organize workers, an inability that is legally enforced. The second and interrelated point is that one solution to the current lack of inspectors could involve workers themselves being able to present their grievances to local union representatives who could in turn liaise with the Inspectorate, however this is not possible given the ACFTU’s position. Third, the new Work Safety Law clearly provides workers with the right – and in fact the obligation – to attend training sessions that enable them to recognize hazards and report them. The fourth issue is that inspectors must have the backing of local government to enforce closure orders, but that this presents obvious problems in poorer areas and is restricted by corruption. As Meng Zidong asked: ‘The courts have the power of enforcement, why don’t we?’[10]
Whilst in no way do we seek to absolve enterprises from the responsibility they bear for injuries and deaths caused by negligence and greed, it is true that the complexity of the regulatory environment is partly to blame. For instance, during the period covering 2000-2001, the State Council Central Office released 184 rules, regulations and related documents. Departments and ministries of the State Council published another 135. Relevant departments in provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions issued a further 107. The sheer weight of administrative excess is exacerbated by the fact that rules, regulations and documents of this type have various levels of authority and must not contradict the law. Officials therefore need to refer to all sets of rules when attempting to determine the various levels of responsibility for breaches of OHS regulations.
Administrative changes in 1998 have further complicated the task of determining which department assumes responsibility for which sector. Major government restructuring has seen the management and monitoring of OHS shift from the old Ministry of Labour to the State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC). For example, the management and inspection of pressure boilers has shifted to the Department of Technical Inspections while the prevention of industrial diseases has been passed over to the Ministry of Health. The new Ministry of Labour and Social Security (MOLSS) now manages industrial accident insurance. The SETC now oversees OHS departments in each ministry responsible for specific sectors, for example, railways.
Potential for Change
There is potential for OHS to improve, especially in large industrial cites and towns and special economic zones. The new laws and standards provide the legal framework that could, if utilized, force enterprises to comply with adequate standards. There is more than adequate information available and there is also a large body of officials with sufficient expertise. The problems therefore lie in a lack of confidence and experience among workers and managers. Workers are in general ignorant of the laws and the vast body of expertise on OHS, while many managers often feel compelled to manage facilities more in line with profit than fairness.
The potential for change is also seriously undermined by a complete lack of freedom of association and a preoccupation on the part of OHS managers and managers in general with the ‘quality’ (suzhi) of their employees. The former prevents workers and the trade union from being able to bargain collectively on issues of workplace safety. The latter prevents moves towards freedom of association because it is assumed that worker quality must be raised before they can enjoy ‘rights’.
There is clearly a need for China to draw further on the experience of other countries. However, this is at present not possible due to the political problems associated with any form of deep engagement with the ACFTU. Until the Chinese trade union attains legitimacy in the eyes of the international trade union movement, the links necessary to drive OHS forward will remain insufficient. Some organizations, such as China Labour Bulletin and the Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions, have made a strong case for worker involvement, but even with freedom of association, worker participation, while absolutely crucial, is not without its problems. [11, 12] One of the objective conditions for migrants – especially in China where they face restrictions with regard to residency – means that the issues of unionization in general and OHS in particular are very low on the agenda for many migrant workers. The raw power of capital is in a much stronger position than labour, even where freedom of association exists, and the forces of globalization have done nothing to ameliorate or temper this power. Workers die in well-regulated working environments, but are at much greater risk in poorly regulated ones.
The arrival of vast numbers of untrained farmers in industries like coal mining, construction and manufacturing has, in the present environment, had a negative impact on OHS; a view overwhelmingly supported by statistics on deaths and injuries in those sectors (see Table 1). At the same time, although workers may be in the best position to monitor health and safety because they have a vested interest in their own safety, however, as is the case the world over, these are often the people with the least interest in workplace safety. Usually very poor and often working for a short time in order to earn as much money as they can, migrant workers will take enormous risks and threaten inspectors or others should they suggest the implementation of OHS measures or anything else that might hinder their ability to earn money quickly. This reality should not be interpreted as a justification for denying workers direct control over their own safety. On the contrary, we simply seek to acknowledge the huge challenges of which union organisers on the ground are all too well aware.
In conclusion, despite the promulgation of new laws, it is clear that Chinese workers still face major barriers to workplace safety. The major ones include the responsibility for administration resting with numerous and diverse local authorities, the decline in government authority, the lack of investment in safety systems, the inadequacy of the inspectorate, the failure of the ACFTU to organise workers around OHS, the complexity of the regulatory environment, administrative changes due to government restructuring, the lack of freedom of association, and the influx into many sectors of an impoverished and untrained migrant workforce.
Reliance on the enforcement of laws may be too optimistic an approach, but equally problematic is the belief that workers can easily take control of monitoring and ensuring their own workplace safety. Training programs rooted in local cultures, and based on small steps that make sense to workers in their own terms may be a more viable approach than simply imposing a top-down structure of rules and regulations. Sustainable systems of workplace safety will require patient work that builds committees and trains leaders from the bottom-up. There is potential for this approach, but it will require alternative approaches to those now dominant in China. We should be mindful that the absence of rigor and failure of implementation may not only facilitate the continuation of traditional and failed approaches to OSH, it may also hinder new approaches aimed at helping Chinese workers take even a minimal level of control over their working environment.
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[1] The following report is a much abridged version of an article by Tim Pringle and Stephen Frost which will appear in a special forthcoming issue of the International Journal of Occupational and Enviromental Health.
References
1. ‘Anquan shengquan bixu chang zhua bu lan jingzhong buming [Safe Production: The alarm bells have been woefully ignored for too long],’ Zhongguo qingnianbao [China Youth Daily], 2002; 6 July.
2. David C. Chritiani, Xiaodong Tan and Xiaorong Wang, ‘Occupational health in China,’ Occupational Medicine; 2002; 17(3), July-September.
3. John Chen, ‘Reflections on Chinese Labour Law,’ in Stephen Frost, Omana George and Ed Shepherd (eds.), Asia-Pacific Labour Law Review: Workers’ Rights for the New Century, (Hong Kong: Asia Monitor Resource Centre, 2003).
4. Stephen Frost, Labour Standards in China: The Business and Investment Challenge, (Hong Kong: Association for Sustainable and Responsible Investment in Asia, December 2002).
5. Hong Kong Liaison Office (IHLO), ‘The revised trade union law in mainland China: Progress or regression for worker and trade union rights?’ 20 November 2001. Online at: http://www.ihlo.org/item2/item2-1.htm
6. Shan Chunchang (ed.), Zhonghua renmin gongheguo anquan fa: baiti huida [One Hundred Questions on China’s Work Safety Law. Educational Materials (1)]. (Beijing: Zhongguo Gongren chubanshe [China Worker Publishing House, under the direction of the State Economic and Trade Commission], September 2002).
7. ‘Quanguo anquan yue lingdao xiaozu bu zhu 1985 nian anquan gongzuo [Work of the leading group during the national safe production month in 1985].’ In: Zhongguo anquan shengquan gongzuo zhongyao wenxian xinpian [New Edition of Important Contributions to OHS Work in China]. (Beijing: Zhongguo shihua chubanshe [China Petrochemical Publishing House], 2000), p. 36.
8. ‘Guanyu jiaqiang meikuang ‘yitong sanfang’ gongzuo de jinji tongzhi [Urgent notice on strengthening the ‘one ventilation three precautions’ work in coal mines],’ circular issued by SAWS, 2002; no. 21.
9. ‘Wasi shi woguo meikuang anquan de zuida weixie, dan yixie meikuang quefa fangzhi wasi shigu de jiben touru [Gas is the major threat to China’s coalmine safety, but a number of coalmines lack basic investment to prevent accidents], Renmin Ribao [People’s Daily], 26 September 2002.
10. ‘Anquan zhifa ruhe ying qilai [How to strengthen the implementation of safety laws],’ Renmin Ribao [People’s Daily], 19 July 2002.
11. Han Dongfang, ‘Reflections on June 4,’ Workers Remember, (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions, 2002), pp. 23-24. Online at: http://www.workersremember.org/section2/sec2-14.htm
12. Lee Cheuk-yan, ‘A major defeat for workers struggling for freedom of association in China: HKCTU statement concerning the ACFTU’s election as a Worker Deputy Member in the ILO Governing Body,’ 12 June 2002. Online at: http://www.hkctu.org.hk/english/news/acftuilo.htm
13. Zhongguo anquan shengquan nianjian [China’s Work Safety Book, 2000-2001], (Beijing: Meitan gongye chubanshe [Coal Industry Publishing House], 2002), p. 482.